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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">D-Loop</span></h1>
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<p>Eine <b>D-Loop</b> (synonym <i>Verdrängungsschleife</i><sup id="cite_ref-Munk_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munk-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> von engl. <i>displacement loop</i>) ist eine Form der <a href="Sekund%C3%A4rstruktur" title="Sekundärstruktur">Sekundärstrukturen</a> von <a href="DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a>. Sie kommt vorübergehend bei der <a href="DNA-Reparatur" title="DNA-Reparatur">DNA-Reparatur</a>, bei <a href="Telomer" title="Telomer">Telomeren</a> und bei der <a href="DNA-Replikation" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA-Replikation">DNA-Replikation</a> von <a href="MtDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA">mtDNA</a> vor.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eigenschaften">Eigenschaften</h2></div>
<p>Die D-Loop besteht aus einer <a href="DsDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DsDNA">doppelsträngigen</a> DNA und einer einzelsträngigen DNA mit komplementärer Sequenz zu einem der beiden DNA-Stränge. Durch die Einlagerung des dritten Stranges wird einer der beiden DNA-Stränge abschnittsweise verdrängt.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA-Reparatur">DNA-Reparatur</h3></div>
<p>In einer Form der DNA-Reparatur, der Reparatur durch <a href="Homologe_Rekombination" class="mw-redirect" title="Homologe Rekombination">homologe Rekombination</a> bildet die D-Loop einen Übergangszustand. In Bakterien wird eine D-Loop durch <a href="RecA" title="RecA">RecA</a> erzeugt, die anschließend durch eine Resolvase einzelsträngig gespalten wird.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Säugetieren sind die Proteine <a href="RPA" class="mw-disambig" title="RPA">RPA</a> (ein <a href="Einzelstrang-bindendes_Protein" title="Einzelstrang-bindendes Protein">Einzelstrang-bindendes Protein</a>) sowie Rad52, das wiederum <a href="Rad51" title="Rad51">Rad51</a> bindet, an der Bildung der D-Loop beteiligt.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telomere">Telomere</h3></div>
<p>Bei der Replikation der Telomere wird an ihrem Ende eine lassoartige Struktur ausgebildet, die als <i>T-loop</i> bezeichnet wird und eine D-Loop beinhaltet.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die T-Loop schützt die Enden der Telomere vor einem Abbau durch <a href="Exonuklease" title="Exonuklease">Exonukleasen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bei der T-Loop stammt der dritte Strang von einem 3'-Überhang am Ende der doppelsträngigen DNA (dsDNA), die sich stromaufwärts zwischen den Doppelstrang drängt und somit die Lassoform ausbildet.<sup id="cite_ref-Srivastava_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Srivastava-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An die Telomere bindet <a href="Shelterin" title="Shelterin">Shelterin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pollard_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollard-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="mtDNA">mtDNA</h3></div>
<p>In <a href="Mitochondrien" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondrien">mitochondrialer</a> <a href="DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a> (<a href="MtDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA">mtDNA</a>) liegt die D-Loop von etwa 660&nbsp;bp (Basenpaaren) stromabwärts direkt nach dem <a href="Promotor_(Genetik)" title="Promotor (Genetik)">L-Strang-Promotor</a> (mit circa 440&nbsp;bp).<sup id="cite_ref-Knippers_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knippers-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die D-Loop liegt in der <a href="MtDNA-Kontrollregion" title="MtDNA-Kontrollregion">mtDNA-Kontrollregion</a>. L-Strang-Promotor und D-Loop bilden einem Bereich des <a href="Replikationsursprung" title="Replikationsursprung">Replikationsursprungs</a> der mtDNA, der als <i>Hauptkontrollregion</i> bezeichnet wird und etwa 1100 Basenpaare lang ist.<sup id="cite_ref-Scatena_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scatena-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knippers_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knippers-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die D-Loop wird hier dauerhaft aus dsDNA mit einem DNA-verlängerten <a href="RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA">RNA</a>-<a href="Primer" title="Primer">Primer</a> (<i>7<a href="Sedimentationskoeffizient" title="Sedimentationskoeffizient">S</a>-DNA</i>) gebildet.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anwendungen">Anwendungen</h2></div>
<p>Innerhalb der Hauptkontrollregion der mtDNA liegen zwei <a href="Hypervariable_Region" title="Hypervariable Region">hypervariable Regionen</a>, die im Zuge einer Erstellung eines <a href="Phylogenetischer_Baum" title="Phylogenetischer Baum">phylogenetischen Baums</a> durch <a href="DNA-Sequenzierung" title="DNA-Sequenzierung">DNA-Sequenzierung</a> der D-Loop ermittelt werden können.<sup id="cite_ref-Knippers_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knippers-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In den hypervariablen Regionen ist die <a href="Mutationsrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutationsrate">Mutationsrate</a> etwa 200- bis 400-fach höher als bei DNA aus dem <a href="Zellkern" title="Zellkern">Zellkern</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neben der Sequenzierung von <a href="Y-Chromosom" title="Y-Chromosom">Y-Chromosomen</a> ist die Sequenzierung der D-Loop eine der häufigst verwendeten Methoden zur Bestimmung von <a href="Verwandtschaftsgrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Verwandtschaftsgrad">Verwandtschaftsgraden</a> beim Menschen.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Manche <a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutationen</a> in der hypervariablen Region sind mit verschiedenen <a href="Tumor" title="Tumor">Tumoren</a> assoziiert, darunter <a href="Geb%C3%A4rmutterhalskrebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Gebärmutterhalskrebs">Gebärmutterhalskrebs</a>, <a href="Brustkrebs" title="Brustkrebs">Brustkrebs</a>, <a href="Magenkrebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Magenkrebs">Magenkrebs</a>, <a href="Darmkrebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Darmkrebs">Darmkrebs</a>, <a href="Leberkrebs" title="Leberkrebs">Leberkrebs</a>, <a href="Lungenkrebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lungenkrebs">Lungenkrebs</a> und <a href="Nierenkrebs" title="Nierenkrebs">Nierenkrebs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Mutationen T16126C, T16224C und T16311C in der ersten hypervariablen Region sind negative Prognosefaktoren für <a href="Akute_lymphatische_Leuk%C3%A4mie" title="Akute lymphatische Leukämie">akute lymphatische Leukämie</a> bei Kindern.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Mutation T16189C ist mit <a href="Koronare_Herzkrankheit" title="Koronare Herzkrankheit">Koronarerkrankung</a> bei manchen Mitteleuropäern assoziiert.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geschichte">Geschichte</h2></div>
<p>Die D-Loop wurde erstmals im Jahr 1971 von H. Kasamatsu und Kollegen beschrieben.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Munk-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Munk_1-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Katharina Munk: <i>Taschenlehrbuch Biologie: Genetik.</i> Georg Thieme Verlag, 2010, ISBN 978-3-131-68621-3 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.de/books?id=g5pRDafq1NUC&amp;pg=PT179">eingeschränkte Vorschau</a> in der Google-Buchsuche).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Kidane, S. Ayora, J. B. Sweasy, P. L. Graumann, J. C. Alonso: <i>The cell pole: the site of cross talk between the DNA uptake and genetic recombination machinery.</i> In: <i>Critical reviews in biochemistry and molecular biology.</i> Band 47, Nummer 6, 2012 Nov-Dec, S.&nbsp;531–555, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109/10409238.2012.729562">10.3109/10409238.2012.729562</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23046409?dopt=Abstract">PMID 23046409</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3490228/">PMC&nbsp;3490228</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Shibata, T. Nishinaka, T. Mikawa, H. Aihara, H. Kurumizaka, S. Yokoyama, Y. Ito: <i>Homologous genetic recombination as an intrinsic dynamic property of a DNA structure induced by RecA/Rad51-family proteins: a possible advantage of DNA over RNA as genomic material.</i> In: <i><a href="Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.</i> Band 98, Nummer 15, Juli 2001, S.&nbsp;8425–8432, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.111005198">10.1073/pnas.111005198</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11459985?dopt=Abstract">PMID 11459985</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC37453/">PMC&nbsp;37453</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">K. A. Bernstein, S. Gangloff, R. Rothstein: <i>The RecQ DNA helicases in DNA repair.</i> In: <i>Annual review of genetics.</i> Band 44, 2010, S.&nbsp;393–417, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genet-102209-163602">10.1146/annurev-genet-102209-163602</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21047263?dopt=Abstract">PMID 21047263</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4038414/">PMC&nbsp;4038414</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. D. Griffith, L. Comeau, S. Rosenfield, R. M. Stansel, A. Bianchi, H. Moss, T. de Lange: <i>Mammalian telomeres end in a large duplex loop.</i> In: <i>Cell.</i> Band 97, Nummer 4, Mai 1999, S.&nbsp;503–514, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10338214?dopt=Abstract">PMID 10338214</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">C. W. Greider: <i>Telomeres do D-loop-T-loop.</i> In: <i>Cell.</i> Band 97, Nummer 4, Mai 1999, S.&nbsp;419–422, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10338204?dopt=Abstract">PMID 10338204</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Srivastava-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Srivastava_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lalit M. Srivastava: <i>Plant Growth and Development.</i> Academic Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-080-51403-1, S.&nbsp;87.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Pollard-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Pollard_8-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas D. Pollard: <i>Cell Biology E-Book.</i> Elsevier Health Sciences, 2016, ISBN 978-0-323-40002-2, S.&nbsp;120.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Knippers-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Knippers_9-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Knippers_9-1">b</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Knippers_9-2">c</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Rolf Knippers: <i>Molekulare Genetik.</i> Georg Thieme Verlag, 2006, ISBN 978-3-134-77009-4, S.&nbsp;460 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.de/books?id=JVXIb6e1ku4C&amp;pg=PA460#v=onepage">eingeschränkte Vorschau</a> in der Google-Buchsuche).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">D. D. Chang, D. A. Clayton: <i>Priming of human mitochondrial DNA replication occurs at the light-strand promoter.</i> In: <i><a href="Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.</i> Band 82, Nummer 2, Januar 1985, S.&nbsp;351–355, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2982153?dopt=Abstract">PMID 2982153</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC397036/">PMC&nbsp;397036</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Scatena-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Scatena_11-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Roberto Scatena: <i>Advances in Mitochondrial Medicine.</i> Springer Science &amp; Business Media, 2012, ISBN 978-9-400-72869-1, S.&nbsp;42 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.de/books?id=UvN_tu6gJpkC&amp;pg=PA42#v=onepage">eingeschränkte Vorschau</a> in der Google-Buchsuche).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">T. J. Nicholls, M. Minczuk: <i>In D-loop: 40 years of mitochondrial 7S DNA.</i> In: <i>Experimental Gerontology.</i> Band 56, August 2014, S.&nbsp;175–181, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2014.03.027">10.1016/j.exger.2014.03.027</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24709344?dopt=Abstract">PMID 24709344</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Larizza, G. Pesole, A. Reyes, E. Sbisà, C. Saccone: <i>Lineage specificity of the evolutionary dynamics of the mtDNA D-loop region in rodents.</i> In: <i>Journal of molecular evolution.</i> Band 54, Nummer 2, Februar 2002, S.&nbsp;145–155, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00239-001-0063-4">10.1007/s00239-001-0063-4</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11821908?dopt=Abstract">PMID 11821908</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Liu-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Liu_14-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Liu_14-1">b</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Liu_14-2">c</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Liu_14-3">d</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Li, D. Liu, J. Lu, Y. Bai: <i>Physiology and pathophysiology of mitochondrial DNA.</i> In: <i><a href="Advances_in_Experimental_Medicine_and_Biology" title="Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology">Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology</a>.</i> Band 942, 2012, S.&nbsp;39–51, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2869-1_2">10.1007/978-94-007-2869-1_2</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22399417?dopt=Abstract">PMID 22399417</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4706180/">PMC&nbsp;4706180</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Kundu, S. K. Ghosh: <i>Trend of different molecular markers in the last decades for studying human migrations.</i> In: <i>Gene.</i> Band 556, Nummer 2, Februar 2015, S.&nbsp;81–90, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2014.12.023">10.1016/j.gene.2014.12.023</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25510397?dopt=Abstract">PMID 25510397</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Kasamatsu, D. L. Robberson, J. Vinograd: <i>A novel closed-circular mitochondrial DNA with properties of a replicating intermediate.</i> In: <i><a href="Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.</i> Band 68, Nummer 9, September 1971, S.&nbsp;2252–2257, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5289384?dopt=Abstract">PMID 5289384</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389395/">PMC&nbsp;389395</a> (freier Volltext).</span>
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